1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to anti-first-pass effect compounds, compositions, and methods for their use, preparation, synthesis, and formulation. Preferably, the invention compounds and compositions are provided as a dietary supplement or as a medical food or as some other type of food product, or as a drug, pharmaceutical or drug preparation, or in some other physical form. In addition to any other function they have, the invention compounds and compositions function as inhibitors of the first-pass effect of orally-administered drugs. Beneficiaries of this invention are animals, preferably mammals, particularly humans, who require drugs, etc. subject to the first-pass effect.
2. Discussion of the Background
The "first-pass effect" of drugs given orally refers to the process of drug degradation during a drug's transition from initial ingestion to circulation in the blood stream. Often discussed in terms of "bioavailability", it is not uncommon for a drug that is administered to a patient orally to be given in a 5-fold or greater amount than ultimately necessary due to the degradation that occurs in the patient's body after intake. For example, the impact of the first-pass effect can be demonstrated with the case of the antihistamine terfenadine, wherein 99.5% of a tablet given by mouth is quickly changed to metabolites; hence, the bioavailability of terfenadine is approximately 0.5% (D. Garteiz et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 1982; 32:1185-1190). As a further example, cyclosporin A, administered to organ transplant patients, has a median oral bioavailability of approximately 30% and a bioavailability range of approximately 8-92% among patients. Because of this large interindividual variation in cyclosporin bioavailability, frequent monitoring of blood concentrations during therapy initiation is necessary.
The inhibition of a particular xenobiotic metabolism as a mechanism of action generally, as well as the inhibition of the first-pass effect with chemical agents specifically, is well known in the art and has been for some time. Examples include the treatment of methanol (wood alcohol) poisoning with ethanol and the inhibition of the first-pass effect of cyclosporin with ketoconazole. See, for example, First, R. M. et al., The Lancet, 1198, Nov. 18, 1989, incorporated herein by reference.
Although the agent(s), enzyme type(s), biological processes, etc. responsible for the first-pass effect have not been fully identified, research has focused on agents capable of inhibiting the cytochrome P450 system. Inhibition of the P450 system is a model for in vitro determination of in vivo bioavailability enhancement. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,478,723 and 5,567,592, both incorporated herein by reference, for a more full description of the P450 system. As reported by A. Keogh et al. (N. Eng. J. Med., Vol. 333, No. 10, p. 628, 1995) and S. Butman et al. (J. Heart Lung Transpl., Vol. 10, No. 3, p. 351, 1991), the dose of cyclosporin required by heart transplant patients could be reduced by approximately 85% when cyclosporin was co-administered with ketoconazole. In economic terms, both references estimated the cost savings to be equal to approximately $5,000 per year per patient. Other drugs which are subject to the first-pass effect and whose bioavailability is increased by inhibitors commonly given to humans include midazolam (K. Olkkola et al, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 1993, 53:298-305), terfenadine (Seldane.RTM.) (P. Honig et al., JAMA, Vol. 269, No. 12, 1513, 1993) and triazolam (Varhe, A. et al, Clin. Pharmocol. Ther., 1994, 56:601-7).
In addition to ketoconazole, the drugs fluconazole, ritonavir, itraconazole, miconazole, erythromycin and troleandomycin have been identified as inhibitors of the first-pass effect, in addition to any pharmacological effect they possess. These compounds, however, are antiviral, antimicrobial, or antifungal agents. Because of the heightened current awareness of the fact that overuse of such agents can result in resistant microbial strains, because some of the most effective inhibitors are antimicrobials, and because transplant and HIV-infected patients have compromised immune systems, the use of these inhibitors of the first-pass effect has significant drawbacks and, for example, in the case of ketoconazole, the purposeful co-administration of this inhibitor with drugs susceptible to the first-pass effect has not become widespread. In fact, the emergence of antifungal drug resistance in immunocompromised patients is already known (T. J. Walsh: "Emergence of Antifungal Drug Resistance in Immunocompromised Patients" Seminar, National Institutes of Health, Feb. 7, 1996; Georgopapadakou, N.H. et al, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, February 1996, p. 279-291).
Dietary supplements, medicines, compounds, extracts, etc. that are based on materials isolated from nature are increasingly being studied and made available to consumers. This trend is largely due to the fact that obtaining patent protection for these materials has become routine (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,708,948, 5,409,938, 5,314,899, 5,591,770 and 5,654,432, all incorporated herein by reference). Not surprisingly, this trend is now spreading to first-pass effective agents.
In 1991, Bailey et al. reported (Bailey, D. G., et al, The Lancet, Vol. 337, Feb. 2, 1991, p. 268, incorporated herein by reference) that grapefruit juice increased the bioavailability of felodipine, and indicated that the inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes by bioflavonoids could explain their findings. This identification of bioflavonoids as the active ingredient in grapefruit juice was immediately challenged by R. Chayen et al. (The Lancet, Vol. 337, Apr. 6, 1991, p. 854) who suggested that sesquiterpenoid compounds rather than flavonoids were the active ingredients in grapefruit juice responsible for inhibition of the first-pass effect. Although Bailey and Edgar were granted a patent (U.S. Pat. No. 5,229,116, incorporated herein by reference) directed to a method of increasing the bioavailability of a pharmaceutical agent by co-administration of a flavonoid such as naringin, their own recent work has openly brought into question the accuracy of their initial identification of flavonoids as active ingredient. See, for example, Bailey et al., Clin. Pharmacokinet. 26 (2): 91-98, 1994, particularly pages 95 and 96 thereof. See also Edwards, D. J. et al, Life Sciences, Vol. 59, No. 13, pp. 1025-1030, 1996.
The reported effects of grapefruit juice as an effective inhibitor of the first-pass effect has lead to numerous research articles regarding the inhibition of the first-pass effect by grapefruit juice on, e.g., nifedipine, nitrendipine, nisoldipine, cyclosporin A, midazolam, triazolam, coumarin, and caffeine. As these results have become better known, the so-called "grapefruit juice effect" has become the subject of newspaper articles, newsletters and medical texts intended for the general public. See, for example, "The Medical Letter", Vol. 37 (issue 955) Aug. 18, 1995, The Peoples Pharmacy, Chapter 4 (St. Martin's Press) 1996, p. 41, the Feb. 19, 1991 newspaper article regarding felodopine and grapefruit juice in the New York Times (section C, page 3, column 1) and a recent article in the Washington Post (Section A, p. 11, Aug. 30, 1996).
A review of the published studies that demonstrate the grapefruit juice effect also shows that the magnitude of the effect varies widely, and it is the present inventors' suspicion that this variation is traceable to the source of the juice. In fact, the production of commercial citrus juice involves a complicated series of factors that increase the variability of the final product's composition. These factors include the squeezing technique, the concentration technique, the origin of the fruit, the ripeness of the fruit at harvest, the admixture of fruits differing in origin and ripeness, the admixture of juice and fruit tailings, etc. Because the active agents in the grapefruit juice that inhibit the first-pass effect were unknown or misidentified scientists and consumers could not choose a grapefruit juice preparation and rely upon its utility to inhibit the first-pass effect.
Moreover, grapefruit juice in particular and citrus products in general are known to contain phototoxic furocoumarin derivatives including psoralen, xanthotoxin and bergapten. While these compounds are useful for the controlled, clinical treatment of selected dermatological diseases including vitiligo, psoriasis and mycosis fungoides, they are also known to be toxic, in particular, phototoxic. The structure-activity relationship for the phototoxicity of furocoumarins has been clearly delineated from human studies (for example, L. Musajo et al, Herba Hungarica, 1971, Tom. 10, No. 2-3, pp. 79-94), and these studies show that photosensitizing activity is removed by ring hydroxylation or by lengthening the alkyl-chain length of ether substituents.
Careful evaluation of the literature shows that psoralen and certain low carbon number ether-substituted furocoumarins that are given to humans in large doses do inhibit cytochrome P450. See, for example, D. Bickers et al., J. Investigative Dermatology, 79:201-205, 1982, M. Tinel et al., Biochemical Pharmacology, Vol. 36, No. 6, 951-955, 1987, H. Fouin-Fortunet et al., J. Pharm. Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. 236, No. 1, 237-247, 1986, and D. Mays et al, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 42:621-626, 1987. Thus, and because the known successful inhibitors of the first-pass effect generally inhibit cytochrome P450, a tempting conclusion, particularly in view of the recent disclaimers by Bailey, and others, is that these low molecular weight furocoumarins present in citrus are the active first-pass inhibitors in grapefruit juice. In fact, and as will be described more fully below with regard to the present invention, the present inventor has found that this is not the case. Because the present inventor has discovered specific compounds that inhibit the first-pass effect it is now possible to produce a reliable, safe composition that both inhibits the first-pass effect and, if desired, that is citrus-based or of citrus origin and which contains no or reduced amounts of low molecular weight phototoxic furocoumarins.